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firmly establishing them as indispensable tools for bridging 2. Sousa AMM, Meyer KA, Santpere G, Gulden FO, Sestan N.
the divide between basic research and clinical application. Evolution of the human nervous system function, structure,
and development. Cell. 2017;170(2):226-247.
Acknowledgments
doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.06.036
The authors would like to thank all team members in Prof. 3. Farah MJ. Neuroethics: The ethical, legal, and societal impact
Xie’s group for their valuable support and constructive of neuroscience. Annu Rev Psychol. 2012;63(1):571-591.
feedback during the preparation of this manuscript. This
work was carried out under the guidance and support of Prof. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100438
Xie, to whom the authors express their sincere appreciation. 4. Lancaster MA, Renner M, Martin CA, et al. Cerebral
organoids model human brain development and
Funding microcephaly. Nature. 2013;501(7467):373-379.
The authors sincerely appreciate the support provided doi: 10.1038/nature12517
by the Sichuan Science and Technology Program 5. Qian X, Nguyen HN, Song MM, et al. Brain-region-specific
(2024NSFSC0002), the China Postdoctoral Science organoids using mini-bioreactors for modeling ZIKV
Foundation (2024M762224), the Frontiers Medical exposure. Cell. 2016;165(5):1238-1254.
Center, Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory Foundation doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.032
(TFJC2023010002), and the “1.3.5” Project for Disciplines
of Excellence, West China Hospital, Sichuan University 6. Pasca AM, Sloan SA, Clarke LE, et al. Functional cortical
(ZYGD23037). neurons and astrocytes from human pluripotent stem cells
in 3D culture. Nat Methods. 2015;12(7):671-678.
Conflict of interest doi: 10.1038/nmeth.3415
Hui Qi Xie is an Editorial Board Member of this journal 7. Molnár Z, Clowry GJ, Šestan N, et al. New insights into
but was not involved in any way in the editorial or peer- the development of the human cerebral cortex. J Anat.
review process conducted for this paper, either directly or 2019;235(3):432-451.
indirectly. Separately, the other authors declare that they doi: 10.1111/joa.13055
have no known competing financial interests or personal 8. Camp JG, Badsha F, Florio M, et al. Human cerebral
relationships that could have influenced the work reported organoids recapitulate gene expression programs of
in this paper. fetal neocortex development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.

Author contributions 2015;112(51):15672-15677.
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1520760112
Conceptualization: Hui-Qi Xie
Data curation: Quan-Jing Mei, Jia-Qi Wen 9. Di Lullo E, Kriegstein AR. The use of brain organoids
Funding acquisition: Hui-Qi Xie to investigate neural development and disease. Nat Rev
Neurosci. 2017;18(10):573-584.
Project administration: Hui-Qi Xie
Supervision: Hui-Qi Xie doi: 10.1038/nrn.2017.107
Visualization: Quan-Jing Mei, Jia-Qi Wen 10. Bose R, Banerjee S, Dunbar GL. Modeling neurological
Writing – original draft: Quan-Jing Mei disorders in 3D organoids using human-derived pluripotent
Writing – review & editing: Xiao-Xiao Xu, Hui-Qi Xie stem cells. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2021;9:640212.
Ethics approval and consent to participate doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.640212
11. Cao Z, Kong F, Ding J, Chen C, He F, Deng W. Promoting
Not applicable. Alzheimer’s disease research and therapy with stem cell
technology. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2024;15(1):136.
Consent for publication
doi: 10.1186/s13287-024-03737-w
Not applicable.
12. Trujillo CA, Muotri AR. Brain organoids and the study of
Availability of data neurodevelopment. Trends Mol Med. 2018;24(12):982-990.

Not applicable. doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2018.09.005
13. Cao SY, Yang D, Huang ZQ, et al. Cerebral organoids
References transplantation repairs infarcted cortex and restores
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1. Clarke JM. Neuroanatomy: Brain structure and function.
Neuropsychology. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; doi: 10.1038/s41536-023-00301-7

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