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Global Health Econ Sustain Distress in Spanish women through COVID-19

safety of citizens during the early phase of COVID-19, in distress following the COVID-19 outbreak was more
many governments have compulsorily implemented pronounced in women (Daly & Robinson, 2021; Etheridge
strict measures, including lockdowns with school and & Spantig, 2022), with women experiencing a decline in
workplace closures, travel restrictions, border closures, mental health that was more than twofold greater than that
and social distancing. Such measures had a major impact of men (Etheridge & Spantig, 2022). In addition, research
not only on the well-being of the population (Niziurski & has revealed that women present lower levels of well-being
Schaper, 2023), as people had to restrict their social and compared to men (Milicev et al., 2023) and are more likely
leisure activities and face daily life stressors, but also on the to experience mental health problems (COVID-19 Mental
economy and employment. Disorders Collaborators, 2021). The prevalence of mental

The societal impact of COVID-19, although long-term, health disorders has increased to a greater extent among
has not been felt uniformly across society (The British women than among men, resulting in “an even greater
Academy, 2021). While the direct health effects of the sex difference in prevalence than before the pandemic”
COVID-19 pandemic have been more noticeable in men (COVID-19 Mental Disorders Collaborators, 2021, p. 1707).
than in women, with higher mortality rates among men Other risk factors contributing to increased stress,
(Flor et al., 2022; Shreeves, 2021), the indirect effects of mental distress, and lower well-being include younger
COVID-19 have disproportionately affected women. This age (COVID-19 Mental Disorders Collaborators, 2021;
discrepancy is because the measures taken in response to Gibson et al., 2021), unemployment (Hellmann et al., 2023;
the outbreak have revealed, despite some disparities, more Matud et al., 2023), student status (Gamonal-Limcaoco
immediate and long-term effects on women (Morgan et al., 2022; Manchia et al., 2022), and poor social support
et al., 2022). According to UN Women and UNDP (2022, (Grey et al., 2020). Despite these risk factors, significant
p. 11), “The pandemic has deepened a trio of interlocking interindividual differences exist, with many individuals
crises that systematically undermine gender equality: a demonstrating resilience (Manchia et al., 2022). High self-
shadow pandemic of violence against women and girls, a esteem emerged as an important personal characteristic
jobs and livelihoods crisis, and a care crisis that together proven to be crucial for environmental adaptation (Zhao
have reversed the already fragile progress on women’s labor et al., 2021) and as a protective factor against the negative
market outcomes.” Women were more likely than men to mental consequences of COVID-19 (Rossi et al., 2020).
have lost their jobs, as they are usually in sectors that are
harder hit by the pandemic, such as the service sector or While numerous research has have investigated the
informal jobs (Flor et al., 2022; UN Women and UNDP, psychological distress and mental health of populations
2022). In addition, they were less likely to return to work across various countries during the COVID-19 pandemic,
and more likely to have suffered career breaks (Smith et al., most of these studies were conducted during its early stages
2021) and changes in working hours (Collins et al., 2021; and did not adequately address the relevance of gender (Flor
Fan & Moen, 2022). The closure of schools, daycare centers, et al., 2022; Morgan et al., 2022). Furthermore, research
and nurseries in many countries to control COVID-19 specifically focusing on women’s psychological well-being
transmission has had a differential impact on women, and distress throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as
as they are the most frequent providers of informal care the protective and risk factors associated with them, is lacking.
in families, increasing the unequal division of care work Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the psychological
and domestic chores (Flor et al., 2021; Shreeves, 2021; distress, stress, and well-being of women at different times
Smith et al., 2021) and limiting their work and economic during the COVID-19 pandemic: (i) during the Spanish
opportunities (Wenham et al., 2020). national lockdown in the first wave; (ii) during the second

Research has shown higher levels of stress among wave; (iii) 2 years after the beginning of the pandemic; and
women compared to men (Gibson et al., 2021; Nin (iv) 2 years after the second wave. In addition, this study aims
et al., 2023). Heterogeneity was observed across studies; to determine the importance of stressful events experienced
however, research conducted during the early stages of the by women since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic,
COVID-19 pandemic indicated that women experienced as well as their demographic characteristics, self-esteem,
higher levels of psychological distress compared to men (Daly perceived social support, and resilience 2 years after the
& Robinson, 2021; Matud et al., 2023). Similar findings were pandemic began, as protective and risk factors for women’s
reported in studies conducted throughout the second wave psychological distress and well-being.
of the pandemic (Daly & Robinson, 2022; Matud et al., 2023). 2. Methods
While rates of psychological distress were generally higher in
women before the pandemic (Daly & Robinson, 2022; Matud The study utilized a cross-sectional design with a non-
et al., 2015), longitudinal studies revealed that the increase probability sample consisting of 4047 Spanish women from

Volume 2 Issue 1 (2024) 2 https://doi.org/10.36922/ghes.2255