Page 108 - GHES-2-1

Global Health Econ Sustain Distress in Spanish women through COVID-19

included age and number of children as quantitative of one or more family members and/or other loved ones,
variables, education as an ordinal variable with five reported by 29.9% of women, and illness of one’s own,
degrees, and occupation and marital status as dummy reported by 17.8% of women. A total of 22.9% of women
variables. For occupation, two dummy variables were who had partners reported having serious disagreements
included: (i) student, coding all occupational categories with their partners since the beginning of the pandemic.
except students with 0 and students with 1 and (ii) working, Excluding retirees and students, 16.6% of women reported
coding employed women as 1 and all other occupational job loss since the pandemic began. In addition, 7.5% of
categories as 0. Marital status was coded as 1 for those women reported experiencing other stressful events since
married or with a partner and as 0 for other categories the beginning of the pandemic. Although there was a
(single, separated, divorced, and/or widowed). In Model 2 wide variety of events cited, the most frequently reported
(second step), the score for the number of stressful events were anxiety, depression, stress, insomnia, uncertainty,
was added to the regression equation. Model 3 (third step) increased workload, and worsening of physical and/or
incorporated scores on self-esteem and emotional and mental health for themselves or their family members.
instrumental social support. In addition, resilience ratings Table 3 shows the results of the ANOVAs in which the
were included in Model 4 (fourth step) for the analyses four study periods were considered independent variables.
conducted between February and April 2022 and between Statistically significant differences were observed in all
October 2022 and February 2023. Analyses were calculated variables except for psychological well-being, instrumental
using IBM SPSS version 22.0.
support, and resilience. Post hoc analyses with Bonferroni
3. Results adjustment were performed to determine between which
groups statistically significant differences existed. These
The analysis of the prevalence of psychological distress differences were found between the second wave with
among women revealed that during the lockdown of the respect to the lockdown and 2 years after the second wave
first COVID-19 wave, it was 60.5%; during the second (between October 2022 and February 2023). Specifically,
wave, it rose to 65.8%; between February and April 2022, it during the second wave of the pandemic, women
decreased to 55.3%; and between October 2022 and February experienced higher levels of psychological distress, more
2023, it further decreased to 49.7%. These differences were negative feelings, lower self-esteem, and greater emotional
statistically significant (χ [3, N = 4033] = 72.82, p < 0.001). support than during the lockdown and 2 years after the
2
Table 2 displays the percentages of stressful events second wave. Furthermore, their positive feelings were
experienced by women during the four study periods lower during the lockdown and the second pandemic wave
since the beginning of COVID-19, while Table 3 displays than 2 years after the beginning of the pandemic, whereas
the means and comparisons of the number of stressful their affect balance was higher 2 years after the second wave
events. As indicated in Table 3, the number of such events than during the lockdown and the second pandemic wave.
increased significantly over the course of the pandemic
compared to 2 years after its onset. The most frequently 3.1. Protective and risk factors for women’s
cited event was the illness of family members and/or other psychological distress
loved ones, reported by 43.9% of all women, followed by Table 4 provides a summary of the hierarchical regression
serious family discord, financial difficulties, and the death analysis that predicts women’s psychological distress.

Table 2. Percentage of stressful events experienced by women during the four study periods
Stressful event Lockdown Second February to October 2022 to χ 2 p
(first wave) wave April 2022 February 2023
Illness of family members or other loved ones 29.3% 37.1% 56.0% 56.0% 204.61 <0.001
Serious family discord 24.5% 31.14% 35.3% 29.0% 22.26 <0.001
Financial difficulties 23.7% 26.4% 32.6% 37.2% 55.06 <0.001
Death of one or more family members and/or other loved ones 14.5% 26.9% 35.8% 41.3% 183.42 <0.001
Illness of one’s own 12.5% 10.4% 24.9% 26.8% 153.59 <0.001
Serious disagreements with partner a 18.6% 23.9% 15.9% 22.9% 5.68 0.13
Job loss b 13.3% 17.6% 16.5% 17.7% 4.64 0.20
Any other stressful event (s) and/or loss 9.1% 7.1% 6.1% 7.5% 5.10 0.16
Notes: These analyses only included married or partnered women. These analyses excluded students and retired women.
a
b
Volume 2 Issue 1 (2024) 5 https://doi.org/10.36922/ghes.2255