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International Journal of Bioprinting 3D bioprinting for translational toxicology

such as establishing robust validation standards—such bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting, and other emerging
as achieving inter-laboratory reproducibility with error bioprinting modalities.
margins below 20%—and enhancing the functional Extrusion-based bioprinting uses mechanical or
maturity of vascular networks persist as areas requiring pneumatic pressure to deposit high-viscosity bioinks
further attention. 71,72 This phase of technological through micro-nozzles. Thermoplastics via fused
evolution signifies a critical transition in toxicology, deposition modeling (FDM) or cell-compatible hydrogels
shifting from empirical threshold-based evaluations to
system-wide perturbation analyses. Such developments via cold extrusion, as shown in Figure 2A and B,
establish a robust foundation for precision medicine and while photocuring approaches such as laser scanning
individualized toxicity forecasting. 73 stereolithography and digital light processing achieve
subcellular resolution—by layerwise ultraviolet or visible-
3. Three-dimensional bioprinting: light crosslinking of methacrylated polymers, as shown
Foundations and platforms for in vitro in Figure 2C and D. Inkjet bioprinting utilizes thermal
bubble or piezoelectric mechanisms to partition low-
toxicological models viscosity bioinks into microdroplets. This modality is

3.1. Modalities of bioprinting technology: Principles categorized into drop-on-demand and continuous inkjet
and parameter comparisons methodologies, as shown in Figure 2F and G. Laser-
The core of 3D bioprinting technology lies in the precise assisted methods like laser-induced forward transfer
spatial arrangement of cells and biomaterials, where the and absorption film-assisted laser printing transfer cell-
selection of printing modalities critically impacts the laden bioinks with single-cell (~10 µm) precision while
physiological fidelity and functional sophistication of the preserving viability, 74,75 as shown in Figure 2E. Emerging
generated models. Based on their operational principles, techniques—including suspended bioprinting in support
3D bioprinting strategies are classified into extrusion- baths for ultra-soft constructs, as shown in Figure 2H,
based bioprinting, photocuring-based bioprinting, inkjet and selective laser sintering of biocompatible powders for

Figure 2. Common three-dimensional printing technologies in the biomedical field. (A) Fused deposition modeling. (B) Cold extrusion. (C) Laser
scanning stereolithography. (D) Digital light processing. (E) Laser-assisted bioprinting. (F) Drop-on-demand inkjet bioprinting. (G) Continuous inkjet.
(H) Suspended bioprinting. (I) Selective laser sintering. Created with Biorender [û, NP. (2025). https://BioRender.com/9qrb2ez.

Volume 11 Issue 4 (2025) 104 doi: 10.36922/IJB025210209