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International Journal of Bioprinting 3D-printed scaffolds for osteochondral defect

Table 2. Hierarchical strategies for 3D-printed osteochondral scaffolds

Scaffold design Strategy Seed cell Manufacturing Mechanical properties In vivo Reference
method model
wCartilage: Pure Composite Cell-free Extrusion-based Tensile strength: 5.22 MPa Rabbit 41
cellulose ink printing Fracture energy: 1.81 MJ/m³
Osseous: 58S BG- Compressive strength: 11.8 MPa
filled cellulose ink
Cartilage: DCM/SF- Composite BMSCs Extrusion-based Compressive stress: 44 kPa (cartilage), Rabbit 42
TGF-β1 biochemical printing 47 kPa (osseous without PCL), 310 kPa
Osseous: PCL + (osseous with PCL)
DBM/SF-BMP2 CM: 9-fold enhancement with PCL
applied
WWCartilage: PCL- Composite Cell-free Extrusion-based YM: 269 ± 20 MPa (PCL), 67% increase in Goat 43
HAp printing PCL-HAp
Osseous: PHA + Flexural stiffness: 206% increase in PCL-
PEGDA + DVC HAp (compared to PCL)
Cartilage: SA-dNC- Composite Cell-free Extrusion-based CM: 94.64 ± 5.27 kPa (G-dNC/nHA), Rat 44
CaCl 2 printing 89.12 ± 15.2 kPa (G-nHA control), 70.55
Osseous: SA- ± 4.29 kPa (G-control)
GelMA-nHA- CaCl Shear strength: maximum in G-dNC/nHA
2
G: Gradient
Cartilage: PCL mesh Composite BMSCs MEW + CM: 17.7 ± 2.0 kPa N/A 45
+ GelMA extrusion-based In vivo interface adhesion strength: 6.6 ±
Intermediate: MEW printing 1.7 kPa (Day 1), 24.4 ± 6.5 kPa (Day 42)
mesh + PCaP
Osseous: PCaP
Top: MeHA + Composite BMSCs Layer-by- EM: 85 ± 10 MPa (cartilage), 185 ± 15 Rat 46
diclofenac sodium biochemical layer alternate MPa (osseous)
Cartilage: MeHA + (KGN) bioprinting S: 55 ± 5 N/mm (cartilage), 110 ± 8 N/mm
BMSCs/PCL + KGN (osseous)
Osseous: PCL + Maximum stress: 1.5 ± 0.1 MPa
β-TCP (cartilage), 3.0 ± 0.2 MPa (osseous)
Cartilage: GelMA Composite Cell-free Continuous 3D CM: 300 ± 50 kPa (cartilage), 500 ± 70 Rabbit 47
Osseous: printing kPa (osseous)
GelMA-HAp (1%
w/t)
Cartilage: PLGA + Composite BMSCs Electrospinning CM: 0.54 ± 0.04 MPa (cartilage), 33.6MPa Rabbit 48
fibrin biochemical + extrusion- (osseous) Minipig
Intermediate: based printing YM: 5.1 ± 0.8 MPa (intermediate)
PLCL + CS/BG
Osseous: Calcium
silicate ceramic
Cartilage: SF Composite Cell-free FDM + CM: 0.12 ± 0.01 MPa (cartilage), 12.56 ± N/A 49
Osseous: PEGT/PBT extrusion-based 1.94 MPa (osseous), 0.113 ± 0.028 MPa
mesh+ porous silk printing (fibrin scaffold)
Top: PGS-CS Composite Cell-free FDM + CM: 0.162 ± 0.005 MPa (PGS, dry); 0.159 Rabbit 50
Bottom: Gelatin extrusion-based ± 0.003 MPa (PGS, wet); 1.139 ± 0.052
printing MPa (PGS-Gel, dry); 0.195 ± 0.007 MPa
(PGS-Gel, wet); 2.443 ± 0.071 MPa (PGS-
CS/Gel, dry); 0.315 ± 0.019MPa (PGS-CS/
Gel, wet)
Cartilage: TPU + Composite Cell-free FDM + CM: 1.079 ± 0.031 MPa (cartilage), 44.369 Rabbit 51
Gel-Alg extrusion-based ± 2.515 MPa (osseous), 21.336 ± 3.683
Osseous: PLA + HAp printing MPa (total)
Shear strength: 0.73 ± 0.027 N
YM: 45 MPa (PLA/HAp), 1 MPa (TPU)

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Volume 11 Issue 4 (2025) 12 doi: 10.36922/IJB025120100