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International Journal of Bioprinting 3D-printed scaffolds for osteochondral defect

Table 2. Continued...

Scaffold design Strategy Seed cell Manufacturing Mechanical properties In vivo Reference
method model
Cartilage: GelMA Structural Cell-free DLP CM: 388.0 ± 17.52 kPa ( 15% GelMA, Rabbit 61
(lotus/radial pores) (geometry) + 0 μm porosity); 344.3 ± 16.50 kPa (15%
+ KGN biochemical GelMA, 100 μm porosity); 302.0 ± 15.00
Osseous: GelMA (KGN) kPa (15% GelMA, 200 μm porosity);
(lotus pores) 203.3 ± 10.41 kPa (15% GelMA, 400 μm
porosity); 178.0 ± 7.211 kPa (10% GelMA,
0 μm porosity); 157.3 ± 6.429 kPa (10%
GelMA, 100 μm porosity); 139.0 ± 5.568
kPa (10% GelMA, 200 μm porosity);
107.3 ± 3.055 kPa (10% GelMA, 400 μm
porosity)
Cartilage: hChon + Cell hChon, hOB Extrusion-based N/A N/A 62
Alg-MC + TGF-β3 heterogeneity + printing
Osseous: hOB + Alg- biochemical
MC + BMP-2
Cartilage: ACPCs + Cell ACPCs, BMSCs Extrusion-based YM: ~ 15 kPa. Rabbit 63
GelMA/AlgMA heterogeneity + printing
Osseous: BMSCs + biochemical
GelMA/AlgMA
Cartilage: PCL/ Composite Cell-free Extrusion-based Compressive strength: 2.1 MPa (10% N/A 64
gelatin/fibrin printing fibrin), 0.81 MPa (30% fibrin)
Osseous: PCL/HA
nanoparticles
Abbreviations: ACPCs, articular cartilage progenitor cells; Alg, alginate; AlgMA, methacrylated alginate; BG, bioactive glass; BMP2, bone
morphogenetic protein-2; BMSCs: bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells; CM, compressive modulus; CS, chondroitin sulfate; DBM,
decellularized bone matrix; DCM, decellularized cartilage matrix; DLP, digital light processing; dECM, decellularized extracellular matrix; EM, elastic
modulus; eUCB-MSC, expanded umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells; FDM, fused deposition modeling; GelMA, gelatin methacrylate;
HAp, hydroxyapatite; hChon, human chondrocytes; hOB, human osteoblasts; KGN, Kartogenin; MC, methylcellulose; MEW, melt electrowriting;
MeHA, methacrylated hyaluronic acid; PCL, polycaprolactone; PCaP, polymer calcium phosphate; PEGDA, polyethylene glycol diacrylate; PEGT/
PBT, poly(ethylene glycol)-terephthalate/poly(butylene terephthalate); PGS, poly(glycerol sebacate); PLA, polylactic acid; PLCL, poly(L-lactide-co-
caprolactone); PLGA, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); S, stiffness; SA, sodium alginate; SF, silk fibroin; SLA, stereolithography; TCP, tricalcium phosphate;
TGF, transforming growth factor; TPU, thermoplastic polyurethane; YM, Young’s modulus.

a polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM) system, which was duration of transgene expression, lasting approximately
coated with dexamethasone-loaded liposomes. The study only 1–2 weeks, hinders long-term use in vivo. Therefore,
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demonstrated that the involvement of dexamethasone- non-viral vectors, such as nanoparticle carriers and mRNA
loaded liposomes exhibited more prominent chondrogenic delivery, are gaining attention as promising alternatives.
differentiation compared to the baseline PEM system.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have introduced a novel
Gene therapy offers a promising strategy for approach to gene therapy due to their ability to precisely
osteochondral regeneration by delivering genes essential regulate the spatial and temporal expression of target
for cartilage and bone repair or silencing pathological genes genes and associated pathways, which are crucial for
associated with joint disease, creating a gene expression chondrogenesis and cartilage development. Notably,
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gradient to achieve zonal cell differentiation. Commonly reduced levels of miR140-5p have been observed
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used genes include growth factors such as IGF-1, in progenitor/stem cells (CPCs) from OA cartilage,
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TGF-β, 106,107 BMP, and FGF; transcription factors such as indicating a correlation with OA progression. Exosomes,
21
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SOX9; and anti-inflammatory molecules like interleukin with low immunogenicity, targeted delivery, and excellent
(IL)-10 and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA). biocompatibility, could serve as a promising carrier
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Traditional gene delivery often relies on viral vectors. for miRNA delivery in gene therapy. Nanoparticles,
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Despite their efficiency, viral vectors face limitations, featuring a porous organosilicon structure, efficiently
including pre-existing immunity to viruses like adenovirus, encapsulate and deliver miRNA with temporal release.
which reduces their effectiveness. Additionally, the limited Zhu et al. developed a self-healing hydrogel loaded with
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Volume 11 Issue 4 (2025) 14 doi: 10.36922/IJB025120100