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Figure 4. Construction and applications of bone organoids. Created in BioRender. Shi, Q. (2025) https://BioRender.com/bt6t6ga.
Abbreviations: ESCs: Embryonic stem cells; iPSCs: Induced pluripotent stem cells; MSCs: Mesenchymal stem cells.
types: hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage. et al. established cartilage organoids from BMSCs and
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Hyaline cartilage, the most prevalent type in humans, is subsequently induced an inflammatory cartilage organoid
found on articular surfaces of synovial joints, the nose, model using interleukin (IL)-1β, providing a robust
trachea, and other areas. It is composed mainly of type II platform for investigating the impact of inflammation on
collagen, proteoglycans, water, and a sparse population of cartilage structure. In addition, various strategies have
chondrocytes. Fibrocartilage, present in the intervertebral been proposed to enhance the applicability of cartilage
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discs, menisci, and tendon-bone interfaces, consists largely organoids. Studies have shown that incorporating PRP
of type I collagen and exhibits high tensile strength. The can improve cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation
primary cartilage type at the rotator cuff tendon-bone within cartilage organoids, thereby advancing their utility
interface is fibrocartilage. in pathological mechanism research and therapeutic
development (Table 5). 74
2.4.2. Construction of cartilage organoids
Due to the lack of neural and vascular supply, cartilage has 2.4.3. Applications of cartilage organoids
limited self-repair capacity once injured, as exemplified by Cartilage-related disorders, particularly osteoarthritis,
osteoarthritis resulting from progressive wear of articular impose significant burdens on patients and markedly
cartilage. Furthermore, cartilage-related pathologies— diminish their quality of life. As methods for generating
including developmental disorders, cartilage tumors, and cartilage organoids have advanced, these models are
inflammatory arthropathies—pose significant clinical increasingly being applied to the investigation of disease
challenges and create a demand for innovative, applicable mechanisms and cartilage repair. Abe et al. generated
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disease models and therapeutic strategies. Consequently, allogeneic iPSC-derived cartilage organoids and
cartilage organoids have attracted widespread research transplanted them into the knee joint cartilage defect
interest. Shen et al. developed a novel hydrogel model in cynomolgus macaques, demonstrating successful
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microsphere using the microfluidic system and seeded cartilage repair and highlighting the potential of organoid-
BMSCs onto these microspheres to form cartilage organoid based approaches for clinical application. Lin et al.
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precursors, which markedly enhanced cartilage repair. showed that LGR5-expressing joint progenitor cells can
Wu et al. constructed organoids that mimic the native be used to generate cartilage organoids suitable for disease
cartilage matrix microenvironment by controlling the modeling and drug screening. Rothbauer et al. established
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orientation of fibers and chondroitin sulfate concentration a chip-based co-cultivation system of synovial and cartilage
gradients within collagen hydrogels, offering a promising organoids to study reciprocal cross talk in arthritis.
strategy for functional cartilage regeneration. Zhang Strategies incorporating vascular microenvironments
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Volume 1 Issue 3 (2025) 8 doi: 10.36922/OR025320025