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Rajak, et al.

Table 5. Efficiencies of bone catalysts produced from different types of transesterification processes
Origin Catalyst Oil Parameters of reaction Production References
Methanol Catalyst Time a Temperature percentage
to oil ratio load (%) (°C)
Waste ----- Waste cooking 15:1 5 4 60 90.56 176
ostrich bone oil
Quail waste ----- Canola oil, 1:12 7 4 65 89.4 from canola 177
head rapeseed oil, oil, 91 from
waste cooking rapeseed oil,
oil 91.7 from waste
cooking oil
Waste CaO Palm oil 1:18 20 4 65 96.78 178
animal bone
Fishbone CaO Waste cooking 15:1 5 4 --- 89.33 179
oil
Pork bone NHAp Jatropha curcas 18:1 4 5 min ----- 94 180
Fishbone CaO Palm oil 12:1 4.02 6.11 65 94.30 181
Cow bone CaO Waste frying oil 12:1 20 8 70 96 182
Aceh cow CaO Castor oil 12:1 6 4 65 58.7 183
bone
Fishbone CaO Palm oil 12:1 10 4 65 77.2 184
Fishbone CaO Palm oil 18:1 10 2 65 90 185
Note: Time is depicted as hours unless stated otherwise.
a
Abbreviations: CaO: Calcium oxide; NHAp: Pork bone-derived hydroxyapatite.

Figure 3. Bone‑derived catalysts, synthesized from different types of bones, show significant efficiency in
transesterification processes
Abbreviations: CaO: Calcium oxide; HAP: Hydroxyapatite.

sites, leading to higher catalytic efficiency. The choice properties of heterogeneous catalysts, including their
of support material for the catalyst also plays a crucial basicity, surface area, active sites, and support materials,
role. Supports, such as mesoporous silica, alumina, significantly impact the efficiency and sustainability of
or zeolites can enhance the surface area and stability the transesterification process in biodiesel production.
of the catalyst. For instance, CaO/MgO supported The majority of the material found in fish bones that
on mesoporous silica has shown improved catalytic have been calcined below 600°C is hydroxyapatite.
activity in transesterification reactions. The ability to However, beta-tricalcium phosphate is formed when
regenerate and reuse catalysts is an important aspect of calcination is carried out at 800°C. 164,165 Bitire et al.
166
their performance. Catalysts, such as KOH supported used fish bones from calcined herring subjected to
on carbon-based materials have demonstrated high calcination at 900°C for 4 h to create a beta-tricalcium
reusability, maintaining their catalytic activity over phosphate catalyst. By transesterifying parsley seed
multiple cycles. Hence, both the chemical and physical oil at a 3 wt% catalyst concentration at 65°C and a

Volume 22 Issue 5 (2025) 12 doi: 10.36922/AJWEP025130095