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Rajak, et al.

and temperatures. Pork bone-derived hydroxyapatite in ash, such as lime and potash, it is frequently used as a
catalysts have been utilized for the transesterification of fertilizer. Wood ash also possesses the capacity to act as
J. curcas oil, achieving a biodiesel yield of 94% with a heterogeneous base catalyst due to its high alkalinity
an 18:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio and 4% catalyst and inorganic composition. In an initial investigation,
load for 5 min in optimal temperature conditions. Cow Eldiehy et al. used a catalytic process to examine the
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bone-derived CaO catalysts have been employed for transesterification of Jatropha oil from alkaline wood
the transesterification of waste frying oil, yielding 96% ash. A solid-state reaction involving double-carbonated
biodiesel under a 12:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio and potassium carbonate and CaCO catalyzed the activation
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20% catalyst load for 8 h at 70°C. Aceh cow bone-derived of calcined wood ash, which was manufactured at
CaO catalysts have been used for the transesterification temperatures between 500 and 1,200°C. This process
of castor oil, yielding 58.7% biodiesel under a 12:1 resulted in the formation of activated wood ash catalysts
methanol-to-oil molar ratio and 6% catalyst load for 4 h that converted Jatropha oil to FAME at a rate of
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at 65°C. The potential of utilizing various animal bone- 97 – 99%. In their study, Kumar et al. used an alkaline
derived catalysts in biodiesel production highlights the heterogeneous catalyst made from sugarcane leaf ash to
importance of optimizing reaction parameters to achieve transesterify C. inophyllum oil. The catalyst was made
high yields. The choice of animal bone source, calcination from the leftover ash after the silica was removed.
temperature, and reaction conditions significantly Fourier transform infrared examination showed that
influence the catalytic efficiency and biodiesel yield. MgO, CaO, and CaCO were present. Although a
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22% decrease in yield was seen after 10 cycles, the
3.3. Ash biomass catalyst attained a 97% FAME production under ideal
A substantial quantity of agricultural waste produced circumstances, which included a 19:1 methanol-to-oil
annually across the world is burnt for fuel, producing a ratio and 5 wt% catalyst concentration at 64°C. 190
large amount of ash. The primary constituents of biomass, Similar to this, walnut shell ash was investigated as a
in order of abundance, are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, catalyst for sunflower oil transesterification, producing
nitrogen, calcium, potassium, silicon, magnesium, a 98% FAME production in 10 min. The high catalytic
aluminum, sulfur, iron, phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, activity is attributed to the presence of potent basic sites,
manganese, and titanium. Burning biomass at high including CaO and K O. As a heterogeneous catalyst,
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temperatures lowers its carbon and oxygen content, and the transesterification of sunflower oil and Sesamum
calcining the resultant ash enhances its basicity as it indicum waste from plant ash was also examined.
contains CaO, MgO, and potassium oxide (K O), which are Rich in carbonates, K O (29.64 wt%), and CaO (33.80
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examples of alkali metal oxides. Ash derived from calcined wt%), as well as sodium, magnesium, iron, manganese,
biomass can therefore function as a basic catalyst. 187 zinc, silicon, strontium, and chlorine, this catalyst
In India, wood has been widely used for millennia demonstrated exceptional catalytic activity, obtaining a
to produce heat, particularly in rural regions, which has 98.9% FAME yield in 40 min under ideal conditions,
resulted in a significant amount of wood ash, as shown which included a 12:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil and
in Figure 4. Due to the large amounts of plant nutrients 7% concentration of catalysts at 65°C. 192

Figure 4. Various methods of converting biomass waste into activated biochar for the transesterification
process

Volume 22 Issue 5 (2025) 14 doi: 10.36922/AJWEP025130095