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Hossain, et al.

skin health. The high iron levels observed in multiple systems may permit the intrusion of contaminants,
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samples may thereby pose potential health hazards. leading to increased turbidity levels and potential health
Elevated EC levels indicate the presence of dissolved risks. 57
contaminants, including salts, alkalis, chlorides, The NPI identifies BOD , hardness, alkalinity,
5
sulfides, and carbonates, which degrade water quality. temperature, and EC as the primary contributors to water
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While high pH can cause water to develop a bitter taste, pollution. Furthermore, the correlation matrix reveals
low pH values increase the solubility of toxic heavy strong associations between BOD , COD, chloride, and
5
metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium. The low hardness with the WQI of PWP samples (Figure 5).
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arsenic level detected in this study may be attributed to These parameters are the principal factors rendering
the near-neutral pH conditions. 49 water unsuitable for consumption across all samples
The ORP levels fall below the permissible range, (Figure 6). A similar pattern was observed in Old
indicating low DO levels. Higher ORP values are Dhaka, where 100% of surveyed respondents reported
associated with increased DO levels, whereas low ORP that municipal water was unsafe for drinking. This
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levels indicate microbial contamination. Temperature highlights the urgent need to manage these parameters to
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is a critical determinant of water quality, influencing improve drinking water quality. To solve this problem,
both physical and chemical characteristics. It affects various mitigation measures can be implemented,
metabolic rates, photosynthetic activity, chemical including identifying pollution sources, using advanced
toxicity, DO concentrations, conductivity, salinity, treatment technologies such as membrane filtration,
ORP, pH, and water density. In addition, temperature reverse osmosis, and other advanced methods, and
variations impact sedimentation, chlorination implementing routine monitoring, maintenance, and
efficiency, and BOD dynamics. 52,53 Elevated bacterial pipeline replacement strategies, including detecting
5
loads in drinking water increase the risk of coliform leaks, addressing corrosion, and mitigating other
bacteria, particularly Escherichia coli, which can infrastructure-related issues. 59
cause severe health issues. Infants, the elderly, and The health risk assessment indicates no carcinogenic
immunocompromised individuals are especially risk from iron for adults or children through ingestion
vulnerable to these pathogens. Although treatment or dermal contact despite some samples exceeding
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processes improve water quality, certain parameters standard levels. However, excessive iron concentrations
– such as DO, pH, ORP, and bacterial load – often adversely affect municipal applications, industrial
deteriorate post-treatment, indicating inefficiencies machinery, and agricultural productivity. While all
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in water management and potential failures in the samples comply with the permissible standard for
distribution system. 55 arsenic, the HQ values suggest that long-term ingestion
The WQI of PWPs is significantly lower than that of of arsenic-contaminated water poses a moderate risk for
treated water, as shown in Figure 4. This decline suggests both adults and children. Chronic exposure to arsenic-
deteriorating water quality at PWPs, necessitating contaminated water is a significant public health
further investigation to determine the causes and issue in Bangladesh, as it leads to arsenic poisoning
key influencing factors. Previous studies indicate and severe health complications. To mitigate these
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that several interrelated factors, including microbial risks, advanced water treatment technologies, such as
growth, contamination events, and physical changes in electrocoagulation, reverse osmosis, and nanofiltration,
distribution networks, contribute to the degradation of have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing arsenic
pipeline-supplied water quality. Biofilms, which consist and iron levels in drinking water. 62,63 The adoption of
of microbial communities adhering to pipe walls, play a these technologies, coupled with a public awareness
crucial role in water quality deterioration by increasing campaign, can significantly reduce long-term health
disinfectant demand and serving as reservoirs for risks associated with heavy metal contamination.
pathogens, thereby posing serious health risks. It is
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estimated that up to 95% of the total microbial biomass 5. Conclusion
in water distribution systems resides within biofilms,
which alter water characteristics as the water travels This study provides critical insights into drinking
through pipelines. Furthermore, the age and material water quality in Kushtia Municipality, Bangladesh,
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composition of pipeline infrastructure, combined with highlighting significant concerns regarding WTP
challenges associated with urbanization, significantly performance, overall water quality, and associated
impact water quality decline. Aging and outdated piping public health risks. The findings reveal that multiple

Volume 22 Issue 1 (2025) 78 doi: 10.36922/ajwep.8163