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systems and bioprocess engineering aims. However, no of organ failure in sepsis. Nat Rev Nephrol, 14(7): 417–427.
one has ever succeeded to produce functional engineered https://doi.org/10.1038/s41581-018-0005-7.
organs. One of the reasons is because we cannot do 6. Gyöngyösi M, Haller P M, Blake D J, et al., 2018, Meta–
anything with natural process at all after implantation. analysis of cell therapy studies in heart failure and acute
Thus, biofabrication is aiming at extracorporeal organ myocardial infarction. Circ Res, 123(2): 301–308. https://doi.
engineering, in which tissue formation can be controlled
and facilitated under human control. org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.311302.
7. Katrina, R., 2016, KMO inhibitor for multi–organ failure
2.6. Conclusion in experimental acute pancreatitis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol

In this mini review, four major challenges by bioprinting Hepatol, 13(2): 61. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2016.6.
and biofabrication are focused and explained from the 8. Kumaran S, Vincenzo V, Maria L L M, et al., 2014, Current
views from the final mission. These challenges were progress in public health models addressing the critical organ
started just from the beginning of this research field but shortage. Int J Surg, 12: 1363–1368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
are still important issues urgently needed to be addressed. ijsu.2014.11.011.
Based on our more than 15 years of research endeavors in
this field, we anticipate that biofabrication (bioprinting) 9. Shruti G, Jason T, Marie B., 2017, Overview of lung
holds great promise for the development of artificial transplantation, heart–lung transplantation, liver–lung
tissue/organs. There are indeed still many technological transplantation, and combined hematopoietic stem cell
issues; however, such problems are also essential to transplantation and lung transplantation. Clin Chest Med,
better understand potential limitations of conventional 38(4): 623–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccm.2017.07.004.
methods, overcome challenges, and produce organs 10. Wil L S, Jacob J S, Paul S M, et al., 2017, The organ transplant
or organ substitutes. Even though we cannot foresee
the use of available biofabrication approaches for imperative. Mayo Clin Proc, 92(6): 940–946. https://doi.
fabricating fully functional organs in the near future, org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2017.03.005.
there is great potential and promise for the applications of 11. Abouna G M., 2008, Organ shortage crisis: Problems and
biofabrication approaches in the research area of TERM. possible solutions. Transplant Proc, 40(1): 34–38. https://doi.
We conclude with the quote of Theodor von Karman who org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2007.11.067.
once said “Scientists study the world as it is; engineers 12. Seetapun D, Ross J J., 2017, Eliminating the organ transplant
create the world that has never been.” Tissue engineers’
worldwide have been doing amazing research and putting waiting list: The future with perfusion decellularized organs.
their efforts on the development and implementation of Surgery, 161(6): 1474–1478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
advance biofabrication technologies (e.g., bioprinting) to surg.2016.09.041.
create the world of biomedicine that has never been. 13. Douville F, Godin G, Vezina–Im LA., 2014, Organ and tissue
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