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Innovative Medicines & Omics Herbal remedies for diabetes mellitus

Figure 3. General pathophysiology of type 2 DM
Abbreviations: DM: Diabetes mellitus; HGP: Hepatic glucose production.

age of 25). The severity of the condition varies depending infectious factors (seasonality, viral infections,
on the specific gene mutation involved. 29,30 enteroviruses), and nutritional influences (maternal
diet, breastfeeding, cow’s milk, and Vitamin D). 32
4. Diagnosis and risk factors of diabetes (ii) Type 2 DM risk factors:

4.1. Diagnosis of diabetes Risk factors for T2DM include obesity, family history,
aging, ethnicity, physical inactivity, smoking, sleep
Early diagnosis of diabetes is crucial for preventing disturbances, cardiovascular disease, dyslipidemia,
severe complications. Common diagnostic tests include hypertension, serum uric acid, and depression. 33
glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), which reflects average (iii) GDM risk factors
blood glucose over the past 2 – 3 months (≥6.5% indicates Risk factors for GDM include a history of GDM, family
diabetes). The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is history of T2DM, obesity, advanced maternal age, and
another widely used diagnostic method in which a plasma specific ethnic background (African, Hispanic, and
glucose level of ≥11.1 mmol/L 2 h after ingesting 75 g Asian). In addition, hypertension, insulin-resistant
of glucose confirms diabetes. In addition, fasting plasma
glucose (≥7.0 mmol/L indicates diabetes) and random conditions (e.g., polycystic ovary syndrome), smoking,
and pregnancy-related factors (e.g., macrosomia,
blood glucose tests (≥11.1 mmol/L with symptoms indicate glycosuria) contribute to increased risk. 34
diabetes) are widely used. Various diagnostic tests and
31
their criteria are summarized in Table 2. DM can lead to complications that affect multiple
organ systems, significantly impairing patient health and
4.2. Risk factors of diabetes quality of life. Both microvascular and macrovascular
35
Diabetes is influenced by a combination of genetic, lifestyle, complications, including retinopathy, neuropathy, and
and environmental factors, making the identification of cardiovascular dysfunction, contribute to high morbidity
risk factors crucial for effective prevention and targeted and mortality rates. About 40% of diabetic individuals
36
interventions. develop diabetic nephropathy, making it the primary cause
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(i) Type 1 DM risk factors: of chronic kidney disease globally. DM induces end-stage
The development of T1DM is associated with genetic renal disease primarily through kidney fibrosis, driven by
pre-disposition (family history, candidate genes), diabetes-related mesenchymal activations, which promote

Volume 2 Issue 2 (2025) 24 doi: 10.36922/imo.7520