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Journal of Chinese
Architecture and Urbanism Ting or Chinese pavilion

noon. Thus, Liu Zongyuan’s ting was enjoyable even In the Northern Song period (960 – 1127), ting became
without natural scenery, possibly due to the simplicity and more integrated with the natural environment due to
functionality of the residential compound, as characterized the removal of enclosing walls or the incorporation of
by Ouyang Zhan in his earlier writings. penetrable elements such as balustrades. Architectural
In another essay, Lingling Santing Ji (零陵三亭记), Liu representations in Song paintings provide valuable
Zongyuan further argued that outings to enjoy natural insights into the structural features of ting. For instance,
scenery were particularly important for politicians, as in Eighteen Scholars of the Song Emperor Huizong (宋徽宗
being in a good mood would enhance their rationality 十八学士图) (Figure 6), a painting attributed to Emperor
and wisdom. He praised the versatility of three ting in the Huizong himself, a wooden platform is depicted on the
Lingling (零陵) county as follows: flat ground. Corner pillars support a roof, and within this
open structure, a wooden stool is positioned, seemingly
…So [Xue Cunyi] constructed three ting. Regardless to hold changed clothes. The depicted structure stands
of ascending or descending the mountain, cloudy independently beside a river, emphasizing its autonomy
or sunny days, the one at the top crowns the from an architectural compound.
mountain peak, and the lower one hovers above a Notably, the technical conception of ting evolved
clear pond. [There, one could] change their clothes during the Song dynasty. Li Jie (1065 – 1110), the author
and enjoy carefully prepared food. [They are of the Northern Song dynasty building manual Yingzao
equipped with] all kinds of amenities. Guests are Fashi (营造法式), did not use the singular term ting to
treated with friendly reception and accommodated refer to this building type. Instead, he employed the phrase
in rooms. (…乃作三亭，陟降晦明，高者冠山 tingxie (亭榭), which likely denotes a combination of two
巅，下者俯清池。更衣膳饔，列置备具，宾 distinct structural elements: ting and xie. In the Zongshi
以燕好，旅以馆舍) (Liu, 1979, p. 738)
(总释; glossary) chapter of Yingzao Fashi, Li Jie references
According to Liu’s description, these ting served as the early Chinese dictionary Erya (尔雅), stating: “if there
multi-functional facilities that could be easily constructed is no room [constructed], it is called xie,” and “if a guan
in the wilderness, offering a full range of amenities for (observatory) is square and high, it is called tai; if it has
literati holding governmental positions. wood, it is called xie (观四方而高曰台，有木曰榭)” (Li,
Moreover, beginning in the Tang dynasty, ting was 2006, p. 8).
also built in imperial palaces for entertainment. Cao From these explanations, it can be inferred that during
(2018) speculated that the ting depicted in the Dunhuang the Song dynasty, a lower wooden platform was referred to
paintings (Figure 5) visually represents a structure where as xie. The term “tingxie,” therefore, combines the wooden
Emperor Dezong of Tang hosted royal banquets for his platform (xie) with the open-roofed structure (ting) built
grand chancellor. This is corroborated by a description in upon it. Therefore, the singular term “ting” in Yingzao Fashi
Nanbu Xinshu: Yi (南部新书·乙) written by the Northern likely referred solely to the roofed structure, excluding the
Song scholar Qian Yi (c.968 – 1026). underlying wooden platform (xie). This differentiation,
which emerged after the Northern Song dynasty, reflects
Returning to Ouyang Zhan’s description, ting during
the Tang dynasty demonstrated remarkable flexibility. They a shift in carpenters’ understanding of ting as a structural
were easier to construct compared to other architectural
types and were not necessary to be tall structures. The
functions of ting during the mid-Tang dynasty, as stated
in various literary sources, were broad—from observing as
locations for literary appreciation and scenic observation
to acting as temporary lodges. By the middle to late
Tang dynasty, ting could take the form of architectural
components within larger compounds, facilities with guest
rooms, or simple standalone structures for rest and respite.

5. Song dynasty (960 – 1279): Accessing
nature and intertwining with xie
During the Song dynasty, the form and function of ting Figure 6. Zhao Ji, Eighteen Scholars of Emperor Huizong of Song (宋徽宗
were simplified and clarified. It was established as an open 十八学士图), early 12 century, Northern Song dynasty (960 – 1127).
th
structure, ideally suited for brief stays. Source: The National Palace Museum, Taipei (www.npm.gov.tw)

Volume 7 Issue 2 (2025) 6 https://doi.org/10.36922/jcau.4107