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Table 1. Overview of the application of different cancer organoids
Year Cancer organoid Origin Results References
2015 Colorectal ISCs Using CRISPR-Cas9–mediated engineering of human intestinal 29
cancer organoids
2019 CRC-PDO A clinical study to evaluate sensitivity to chemotherapy of PDO 30
2020 CRC-PDO, CAFs Established a hydrogel CRC PDO-CAF model to evaluate 31
standard-of-care drugs
2024 Liver cancer Liver cancer tissues Established a biobank of 65 human liver cancer organoids for 34
clinical drug screening and pharmacoproteomic analysis
2021 Huh7 cells, iPSC-EC, iPSC-MC Generated functional, 3D sheet-like human HCC organoids in vitro 35
2025 Pancreatic WT, KC, KPC Developed pancreatic organoids containing PDAC driver 37
cancer mutations to screen for KRAS mutation inhibitors
2023 KPC Development of a T cell-integrated pancreatic tumor organoid 38
model to establish a high-throughput drug screening platform
2022 PDO Feasibility trials of personalized treatments to test their drug 39
sensitivity and clinical outcomes
2024 Breast cancer PDO 60 organoids were established from 75 breast samples 41
2024 PDO PDO established in tissues collected before (O-PRE) and after 42
(O-POST) treatment
2020 NSCLC NSCLC primary patient tissue, PDX Establishment of NSCLC organoids from primary lung cancer 46
patient and PDX tumor tissue
2023 Metastatic lung Human malignant serous effusions Generated 214 cancer organoids from 107 patients 47
cancer
2024 Gastric cancer PDO 57 gastric cancer PDOs were established for personalized drug 51
screening
2021 PDO Three independent oxaliplatin-resistant gastric cancer organoids were 54
established, demonstrating that MYOF is a promising marker gene
2021 Prostate cancer PDO Generated a novel organoid model derived from hormone-naïve 59
lung metastases that showed alterations in the PI3K/Akt and
Wnt/β-catenin pathways in response to androgen deprivation
2021 PDO Established ex vivo primary PDCO cultures from prostatectomy 60
specimens of patients with locally advanced prostate cancer
2019 Bladder cancer Bladder epithelium (urothelium) Created a living biobank of organoids grown from more than 50 64
patient samples
2020 Ovarian cancer EOC Establishing organoid cultures from high-grade serous ovarian 69
cancer to decipher the role of NRG1/ERBB
Abbreviations: CAFs: Cancer-associated fibroblasts; CRC: Colorectal cancer; EOC: Epithelial ovarian cancer; HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma;
iPSC-EC: iPSC-derived endothelial cells; iPSC-MC: iPSC-derived mesenchymal cells; ISCs: Intestinal stem cells; KC: Kras mice; KPC: TP53 mice;
KRAS: Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog; NSCLC: Non-small cell lung cancer; PDAC: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma;
PDCO: Patient-derived cancer organoid; PDO: Patient-derived organoid; PDX: Patient-derived xenograft; WT: Wildtype.

predicted the treatment response in over 80% of patients microenvironment by establishing the hydrogel-based
using irinotecan, with no instances of misclassification for co-culture model, a significant improvement compared to
those who could benefit from the treatment. 28,30 The study traditional organoid cultures, making it highly relevant for
highlights the potential of PDO as a preclinical model to precision medicine and drug discovery. 31
help make personalized treatment decisions and improve
treatment outcomes in patients with metastatic CRC. This 3.2. Liver cancer
approach bridges the gap between laboratory research Liver cancer is characterized by a high incidence rate,
and clinical application, providing a reliable, patient- poor clinical prognosis, and high mortality worldwide.
32
specific model for predicting chemotherapy response. Broutier et al. were the first to establish primary liver
30
33
Luo et al. established hydrogel-based CRC organoid cancer organoids, including the three main types:
31
co-culture models to enable CRC PDO co-culturing with Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), cholangiocarcinoma
patient-derived cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). (CC), and combined HCC (CHCC). Organoid cultures
Scientists have successfully replicated the CRC tumor faithfully preserved the histological, transcriptomic, and

Volume 1 Issue 2 (2025) 5 doi: 10.36922/OR025050008