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Figure 3. Potential applications of cancer organoids to improve treatment prediction and clinical applicability. Cancer organoid models provide
unlimited possibilities for high-throughput drug screening, disease modeling, personalized therapy, gene editing, immunotherapy, and so on. Created
with BioRender. Cao, K. (2025) https://BioRender.com/gv6xwxf.

models unique value in studying the mechanism of action 3.1. CRC
of oncogenes during tumor evolution. In addition, the Organoids are usually extracted from normal human
tumor microbiome affects the occurrence and development epithelial cells, harboring potential for gene mutations
of tumors at multiple levels. Organoid models have been in various stages of cancer in vitro. Therefore, for CRC,
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widely used to study the mechanism of inflammatory organoids can be routinely obtained from cancer tissue
responses and pathogen interactions. For example, at different clinical stages. For early malignancies, PDOs
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after injecting Helicobacter pylori into gastric organoids, can be utilized to identify molecular changes that may
researchers observed its ability to induce the release of serve as biomarkers and prevention targets. Matano
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interleukin (IL)-8 and other inflammatory cytokines. This et al. employed human intestinal organoids as a platform
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simulation allows researchers to investigate the complex to simulate CRC using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing
causal relationship between microorganisms and cancer. technology. Researchers employed the CRISPR-Cas9
To sum up, cancer organoids serve as a significant research technology to introduce mutations in key genes associated
tool, offering extensive opportunities across various fields, with CRC, such as APC, TP53, KRAS, SMAD4, and
including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, genomics, and PIK3CA. These mutations were introduced in sequence,
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microbiome studies, thereby advancing the prospects of replicating the progressive genetic alterations observed in
personalized medicine. human CRC, thus successfully replicating the progression
3. Applications of organoids in cancer from normal epithelium to advanced malignant tumors in
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research the organoid system. This study provides a controllable,
scalable model for CRC biology to study the interactions
Our current understanding of tumor pathogenesis and between specific gene mutations and CRC development.
treatment response remains superficial and limited, mainly Ooft et al. conducted a prospective clinical study based
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due to the heterogeneity of tumors and the complexity of on PDO from CRC metastatic tumors to assess whether
gene mutations. With the development and improvement PDO could effectively simulate a patient’s specific response
of organoid technology, tumor organoid models have to chemotherapy. Conventional chemotherapy drugs (e.g.,
been widely used in biomedical research, especially cancer 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin) were utilized for
research (Table 1). PDO. The results demonstrated that the PDO test accurately

Volume 1 Issue 2 (2025) 4 doi: 10.36922/OR025050008