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International Journal of Bioprinting 3D bone: Current & future

Table 2. Components of the bone extracellular matrix (ECM) and their function
Material Protein ECM component Origin Function
Inorganic N/A Hydroxyapatite Bone Mineralization
Scaffold for bone cells; strengthen bone;
Type I collagen Osteoblast promote bone formation; regulate collagen
Organic Collagenous fibrillogenesis
Type III collagen Bone Promote bone formation
Type IV collagen Bone Promote bone formation
Non-collagenous Proteoglycans
Promote collagen fibrillogenesis; promote
Biglycan Osteoblast
bone formation
Promote collagen fibrillogenesis; promote
Decorin Osteoblast
bone formation
Keratocan Osteoblast Promote mineral deposition rates
Articular cartilage;
Asporin Promote collagen mineralization
periodontal tissue
γ-Carboxyglutamic acid-
containing proteins
Regulate calcium metabolism; indicate bone
Osteocalcin Osteoblast
formation
Osteoblast; osteocyte;
MGP Inhibit bone formation; mineralization
chondrocyte
Regulate collagen fibrillogenesis; strengthen
Periostin Osteoblast; precursor cells
bone
Glycoproteins
Promote bone formation; mineralization;
Osteonectin Osteoblast regulate collagen fibrillogenesis; maintain
biomechanical properties
Promote bone formation; regulate collagen
Thrombospondins Osteoblast
fibrillogenesis
Promoter Wnt/β-catenin signaling; regulate
R-spondins Bone
bone development
SIBLINGs
BSP Mineralized tissue Promote bone formation; mineralization
Osteoblast; odontoblast; Promote bone formation; mineralization;
OPN
osteocyte regulate bone remodeling
Regulate phosphate metabolism; promote
DMP1 Osteoblast
bone mineralization
Regulate phosphate metabolism; promote
MEPE Bone
bone mineralization
Abbreviations: BSP: Bone sialoprotein; DMP1: Dentin matrix protein-1; MEPE: Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein; MGP: Matrix Gla protein;
N/A: Not applicable; OPN: Osteopontin; SIBLINGs: Small integrin-binding ligand N-linked glycoproteins.

bone tissues, such as cadmium (when bound to calcium) for bone growth, regeneration, and renewal. Primary
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causing severe osteoporosis. ossification refers to the direct differentiation of MSCs
into bone-forming cells and can occur in the periosteum,
2.3. Development of bone tissues the fibrous membrane of the bone (intramembranous
Osteogenesis or ossification is defined as the formation ossification), or in the perichondrium, the fibrous
of bone tissues and starts from week eight of the membrane of the cartilage (perichondral ossification),
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embryonic age. Most bones are already formed by birth, where the newly formed bone tissues do not replace the
after which new bone cells and tissues are formed only existing tissues. In secondary ossification, MSCs first

Volume 10 Issue 3 (2024) 146 doi: 10.36922/ijb.2056