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Attarilar, et al.
A B C

D E F

G H I J

K L M N

Figure 14. Various lattice structure topologies (International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, A state-of-the-art
review on types, design, optimization, and additive manufacturing of cellular structures, Volume 104, 2019, pp. 3489–3510,
Nazir A, Abate KM, Kumar A, et al (original copyright notice as given in the publication in which the material was originally
published) “With permission of Springer”) [99] . (A) Kagome, (B) octet truss, (C) MS1 lattice, (D) pillar textile, (E) square collinear/
cubic, (F) re-entrant auxetic, (G) octahedron, (H) honeycomb, (I) square, (J) diamond, (K) triple periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) P-type,
(L) TPMS gyroid, (M) TPMS D-type, and (N) TPMS I-WP type.

stiffness and load capacity; compared to dense Ti material, was initially carried out together with the utilization of
the 3D printed porous structure manifested a 96% decrease a wide range of compressive strengths and subsequently
in elastic modulus and strength values. by alkali treatment, heat treatment, and hydroxyapatite
AM manufactured porous titanium interbody cages coating formation through electrochemical deposition.
are very useful in spine treatment, and they have desirable The in vitro results indicated good cytocompatibility,
levels of biocompatibility that is beneficial for better bone improved osteon cell adhesion, and proliferation, while
ingrowth and fixation. A comparative in vivo study that in vivo experiments indicated superior tissue-materials
utilized 3D printed titanium porous implants produced by interfaces in dual modulated samples. Figure 15 shows
Stryker on several mature sheep found that bone ingrowth the fabrication method of dual modulation on 3D printed
on porous titanium alloy was superior to both PEEK and titanium material.
plasma spray-coated implants and the histomorphometric Coating with biologically beneficial substances
results showed better osteoblastic deposition on these is one of the methods for improving AM manufactured
implants [116] . Furthermore, peri-implant osteogenesis porous materials. Bose et al. [118] manufactured titanium
and increased stability were observed in 3D printed porous structures with about 25% volume porosity through
titanium samples. The titanium porous materials can be LENS method, produced TiO nanotubes on the structure
2
further improved in different strategies. For instance, surface and a coating functionalized by Sr and Si ions,
4+
2+
Song et al. capitalized upon the varying macro architectures doped bioactive calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramic in
and surface topological morphology on SLM produced simulated body fluid and implanted the samples in the rat
porous titanium for modulation [117] . This dual modulation model. These doped CaP-coated 3D printed Ti implants
International Journal of Bioprinting (2021)–Volume 7, Issue 7 33