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Zhang et al. / IJOCTA, Vol.15, No.4, pp.649-669 (2025)

Figure 19. Comprehensive evaluation factors of the intrinsic mode function (IMF) components obtained
from the golden jackal optimization–variational mode decomposition
Abbreviation: CDF: Comprehensive discriminant factor.

Figure 20. Reconstructed signal of the inner race fault

Figure 21. Multiscale fuzzy entropy (MFE) curves of reconstructed signals for rolling bearings under
different states
Abbreviations: IRF: Inner race fault; Nor: Normal; ORF: Outer race fault; REF: Rolling element fault.

for determining the working condition of rolling bearings were randomly chosen as training sam-
bearings. ples to train the classifier; the state feature vec-
tors were used as testing samples to assess the
classifier’s performance. The fitness function was
A maximum of 1000 iterations was set for net- the sum of the error rates for the training and
work training, with a learning rate of 0.01 and testing sets. The GSABO population was set at
a target minimum error of 0.0001. Forty state 50, with a chaotic coefficient of 2, a maximum of
feature vectors from each condition of the rolling 10 iterations, and threshold weight limits of [−3,
664