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Microbes & Immunity Carotene and immunity to COVID-19 vaccine

Figure 6. Box plots of alpha diversity indices (Chao1, Inverse Simpson, Pielou, and Shannon) of microbial diversity in feces of Baseline (fed with the
vehicle), Baseline_C (fed with the vehicle and vaccinated with CoronaVac), CRT (fed with carotene), and CRT_Cov (fed with carotene and vaccinated
with CoronaVac) groups. No significant differences were observed across the four groups in all indices. Data are presented as mean ± SD, derived from
three mice (n = 3) per group.

flow-cytometry analysis showed no significant difference
in the percentages of adaptive immune cells, such as B
cells, CD4 Th cells, and CD8 CTLs, across the study
+
+
groups. The daily supplementation of carotene did not
significantly modulate lymphocyte counts in vaccinated
and unvaccinated mice. The result aligns with an earlier
random clinical trial, where the effect of daily β-carotene
supplementation on immunity was investigated. The
27
β-carotene supplementation reported no significant
changes in in vitro lymphocyte proliferation and production
of IL-2. In addition, β-carotene supplementation resulted
in no significant difference in profiles of leukocyte
subsets (CD3 total T lymphocytes, CD4 Th cells, CD8
+
+
+
CTLs, and B cells). In contrast, the results from another
random clinical trial demonstrated that moderate daily
Figure 7. Scatter plot of principal coordinates analysis illustrating the supplementation of β-carotene (15 mg/day for 26 days)
beta diversity of microbial communities in feces from Baseline (fed
with the vehicle), Baseline_C (fed with the vehicle and vaccinated with enhanced cell-mediated immune responses in non-
CoronaVac), CRT (fed with carotene), and CRT_Cov (fed with carotene smoking males through upregulating the expression of
and vaccinated with CoronaVac) groups. No significant differences were major histocompatibility class II proteins, for example,
observed across the four groups. Data are derived from three mice (n=3) the human leukocyte antigen-DR – a functional surface
per group. protein on monocytes associated with improved host
Abbreviation: MDS: Multidimensional scaling.
immune response to antigenic stimulation. 28
immune response to an inactivated COVID-19 vaccine Humoral immunity was evaluated by quantification
were explored in a mouse model. The results from the of antibody levels. In this study, daily carotene

Volume 2 Issue 3 (2025) 79 doi: 10.36922/MI025110021