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International Journal of Bioprinting Exosome-based bioink for bioprinting

Figure 1. The general scheme of exosomes-advanced bioprinting and its applications. Through CAD modeling to recapitulate the structures of the damaged
regions, exosomes can improve the bioprinted constructs for the applications of bone engineering, vascular engineering, nervous injury repair, and skin
regeneration.

expression of ECM components in cartilage, and ultimately 2.2.3. Angiogenesis
enhanced the regeneration of cartilage tissues [21-24] . Exosomes can also be involved in the differentiation of
vascular cells, the promotion of blood flow restoration, and
2.2.2. Immunological regulation the formation of the capillary network during angiogenesis.
The two main mechanisms of exosomes acting in immune For instance, MSC-exosomes can increase endothelial
regulation are their direct actions on the targeted cells to cell lumen formation and promote angiogenesis .
[27]
initiate downstream signals and the miRNA-mediated Subcutaneous injection of the exosomes from human
(indirect) regulations . Cancer cell-derived exosomes umbilical MSCs in a nude mouse model significantly
[18]
can block the maturation and migration of dendritic increased neovascularization around the infarct areas
cells through PD-L1 (programmed death ligand-1) . in vivo . In addition, the exosomes from stem cells also
[25]
[28]
Meanwhile, exosomes from tumors can inhibit RFXAP have the ability to induce angiogenesis in the resting state .
[29]
(regulatory factor X-associated protein), an essential
transcription factor for MHC-II (major compatibility 2.2.4. Neural degeneration
complex II) in dendritic cells, via miR-212-3p, thereby Certain neuronal exosomes are involved in the
reducing MHC-II expression and inducing immune accumulation of misfolded proteins in the brain and
tolerance in dendritic cells . accelerate the progression of neurodegenerative disease,
[26]
Volume 9 Issue 6 (2023) 112 https://doi.org/10.36922/ijb.0114