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International Journal of Bioprinting 3D-printed scaffolds for TMJ fibrocartilage regeneration

Figure 6. The vicious cycle of TMJ translational research. (from ref. licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license).
[95]
TMJ tissue engineering, resulting in a vicious cycle of TMJ Conev et al. predicted the quality of 3D-printed products
[98]
translational research (Figure 6). Considering knee tissue from the material composition and printing parameters
engineering as an important reference, several approaches using an ML model. Similar work was done by Ruberu
and suggestions have been raised to promote TMJ tissue et al. , who adopted ML to create the optimal printing
[99]
engineering, such as increasing the amount of rigorous parameters protocol, including ink composition, ink
TMJ research, strengthening surgical training opportunities reservoir temperature, driving pressure, needle speed, and
and research grants for TMJ physicians and researchers, platform temperature. Furthermore, the effect of nozzle
holding large-scale interdisciplinary conferences on TMJ, geometry, printing pressure, and material properties on
establishing clear indications and industry guidance for TMJ cell viability was analyzed by Reina-Romo et al. [100] using
tissue-engineered products, and so on . On the other hand, an ML approach named Gaussian Process. ML shows great
[95]
the anatomical structures, functions, and biomechanical potential as a novel approach to improve the biological
properties of the TMJ disc, meniscus, and intervertebral properties of 3D-printed scaffolds.
disc have been compared in a recent review, suggesting that Although BFs play an important role in TMJ fibrocartilage
their similarities may guide the imitation and improvement regeneration, they are rarely used, mainly due to the
of TMJ tissue-engineered products in seed cells, scaffold lack of an effective approach to realize spatiotemporally
materials, and BFs . In general, there is an urgent need for controlled release of BFs. As mentioned in the previous
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increased interdisciplinary collaboration, societal support, studies, microspheres loading BFs have been demonstrated
and financial investment in TMJ tissue engineering.
to possess the ability to realize spatially-controlled delivery
of BFs with a prolonged release [71,75] . However, the release
6.3. Emerging tissue-engineering strategies of BFs from microspheres remains passive and unable to
3D printing technology has provided new impetus for the interact with the local biological microenvironment [71,75] .
development of TMJ fibrocartilage tissue engineering, but Stimuli-responsive delivery systems for growth factors
satisfactory results have rarely been achieved so far. Several may be the solution to the developmental asynchrony of
tissue-engineering strategies are considered potential different components of the heterogeneous TMJ tissues in
approaches to improve the performance of 3D-printed TMJ the regeneration process. The release of stimuli-responsive
scaffolds and are therefore briefly presented below (Figure 7).
delivery systems can be triggered by, for example, a specific
To better regulate the complex effects of printing pH, biomolecule recognition, and external stimuli, such as
parameters on the quality of 3D-printed products, machine temperature, ultrasound, magnetic, voltage, and light [101,102] .
learning (ML) has been introduced to the biomaterials For example, the release of BMP-7 and BMP-2 at different
field as a promising approach to quantitatively assess times and sequences using light-triggered delivery systems
printability and optimize printing parameters . Recently, is regulated by different wavelengths of light [103] .
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Volume 9 Issue 5 (2023) 270 https://doi.org/10.18063/ijb.761